Aspectos tácticos y operativos

[V.Manstein]

Aquí hay que recordar, si les parece bien , los aspectos teóricos y prácticos tanto tácticos como operativos que caracterizaban a cada ejército. Hay mucho de que hablar y es muy importante. Aquí les pongo un texto clásico sobre Cómo atacaba una división alemana de infantería:

1) General principles for employment. German teaching envisages infantry divisions being employed to make a penetration in the enemy defensive positions through which armored and mechanized formations can pass. During the course of this war, however, no major attack has been carried out by infantry divisions without the support of Panzer divisons. In fact, more major attacks have been carried out by Panzer divisions, with only a minimum of ordinary infantry elements. Infantry divisions have been employed almost entirely in a role of consolidation, following up the armored and mechanized formations, systematically eliminating centers of resistance by-passed by the latter, or exploiting the latter's success by mopping up demoralized enemy defenses to the flanks of the armored breakthrough - in short, condolidating and holding the ground won by the mechanized formations.

In view of the unspectacular role allotted to the infantry division it is difficult to give information about other than minor infantry tactics, such as attacks on a small scale.

(2) Preparation for the attack. The method of forming up for an infantry assault on a prepared position is similar to that employed by the Panzer division. While the infantry is in assembly positions, the artillery makes all preparations for the support of the attack. it draws out hostile artillery fire and executes counterbattery fire against known enemy batteries. Large troop concentrations and especially important tagerts are taken under fire at great ranges. In order not to betray their full strength and intentions, the Germans withhold a portion of their batteries from these missions. They also try to deceive the enemy as to their intentions by covering other sectors simultaneously with fire. When possible, preparation for an attack is avoided during the day in order to prevent Allied observation. Occasionally, to obtain a success by surprise, the Germans launch attacks without artillery preparation. Surprise attacks also are launched under cover of darkness or fog.

The Germans normally occupy their line of departure by means of infiltration in order to avoid losses. Their orders direct what actions have to be taken when companies run into enemy defenses; when enemy fire is opened from the flank; when an enemy counterattack is launched; when objectives are reached; when companies appear to be getting dispersed; when part of a company pushes too far ahead of neighboring units or is held up.

The heavy machine guns of the rearward company and some of the mortars and heavy mortars are assigned to deal with enemy flanking fire.

The commander of the heavy company is normally at the battalion headquarters, from which he can control the fire of the infantry heavy support weapons.

(3) Deployment. (a) First stage. The Germans carry out deployment in two stages. They call the first stage Entfaltung or "shaking out", which is equivalent to the development of a march column according to US procedure. In the first stage, an infantry regiment normally deploys down to battalions, although the procedure may go down to companies if a high state of preparedness is necessary. Features of the first stage of deployment are as follows:

Companies retain their combat vehicles until their weapons and equipment arrive at the off-carrier position, which is located as far forward as the situation permits.

The Germans often place only on company forward, the main strength of the battalion being kept under control of the battalion commander as long as possible so that he may employ it in the most advantageous direction for attack.

If the condition of the terrain and enemy fire cause a change of intervals between units, the normal intervals are resumed as soon as possible.

Support weapons are used to cover the "shaking out" phase of deployment and the subsequent advance, the weapons being kept within the march column between the companies or behind the battalion.

After the first stage of deployment has been carried out, the leading elements of the batalion may be ordered to seize important tactical features.

When deploying by night or in woods, a careful reconnaissance is made, routes are marked, and strong protection is placed forward. Intervals between units are shorter.

After the first stage of deployment has been completed, the battalion commander marches with the leading elements and normally will send reconnaissance patrols ahead or reconnoiter the enemy position himself. The commanders of support weapons accompany him, reconnoitering the firing positions.

(b) Second stage. The second stage , called Entwicklung (development), is deployment in detail, which is the final action of the company extending itself down to platoons and squads. Features of the second stage of deployment are as follows:

The companies deploy in depth as soon as they come within range of artillery fire. An advance in columns of files is considered desirable because it affords a small target and the company is easier to control, but before adopting this formation the danger of enfilade fire is weighed.

If enemy fire and difficult terrain necessitate further deployment, the companies disperse in depth by sections. Reserves and support weapons also adopt open formations, but they remain far enough behind to avoid coming under the fire directed at the leading elements.

When the rifle companies are deployed, they exploit all possible cover as they advance, employing column-of-file formations with irregular distances. The leading elements are not extended until they are to engage in a fire fight. The elements that follow continue advancing in file.

In determining when to deploy, the Germans take into consideration additional physical strain placed on men when they march cross-country.

(4) Technique of attack. The infantry attack on prepared positions is made in the same sequence as that of the Panzer division, namely penetration, breakthrough, exploitation by the reserves. In the infantry attack, however, the first phase is a series of local attacks by so-called assault detachments (Stosstrupps) with the aim of overcoming key points in the enemy defenses, so that wedges into the enemy's forward positions can be established from which the attack can be driven forward into the depth of the enemy position, or rolling up the positions on either flank of the wedge.

Assault detachments normally are composed of infantry with engineers attached. A typical assault detachment consists of the following: one officer; obstacle clearing party, consisting of two to six men for each lane to be cleared, equipped with small arms, wire-cutters, and bangalore torpedoes and other explosives; embrasure-blasting party consisting of three or four men equipped with grenades and demolition or pole charges. This party may also include, though it may work independently, a flame-thrower party, consisting normally of two men; covering parties, normally two or three parties of verying size from three men with one light machine gun to full platoons; smoke party consisting of two or three men equipped with smoke candles or grenades; supply party, carrying reserves of equipment and ammunition, their strength depending on the size of the assault detachment.

Attacks most often are made at dawn, and are preceded normally by heavy artillery preparation, one purpose of which is to make shell holes which afford cover for the advancing assault detachments as they move forward. When the latter reach the wire obstacles surrounding the enemy position, Very signals are fired, calling for available artillery fire to be brought on the position to seal if off from flanking positions. If, by reason of proximity of the assault detachment to the artillery's danger zone, the former cannot be protected by covering fire, the smoke party may lay a smoke screen. The obstacle-clearing party then cuts one or more lanes through the wire, using wire cutters or bangalore torpedoes. The embrasure-blasting party passes through and attacks the embrasures. Flame throwers, if empoyed, are not intended by themselves to cause the surrender of the position, but to cover the advance of the embrasure-blasting party with its explosive charges which are considered the decisive weapon.

Antitank guns may be used to give close support to the embrasure-blasting party, being manhandled from cover to cover. They will attack the embrasure with armor-piercing ammunition and also give protection against possible tank-supported counterattacks.

It is possible that several such operations will be in progress on any one sector at any one time before an attack, in the first place to probe for weak spots, and in the second place to keep the enemy in uncertainty as to the final point of main effort of the attack. German feint attacks have often been delivered in such strength or with such violence as to be indistinguishable from the main attack.

Once a wedge has been firmly established in the enemy positions, the second phase of the attack begins. Troops so far held in their assembly area, or slowly making headway under cover of the artillery fire supporting the first phase of the attack, advance to cut the enemy position in two and to roll up the positions flanking the wedge.

Because the Germans anticipate enemy defenses organized in depth, and because these are unlikely to be fully disclosed until after the beginning of the attack, they do not make detailed plans for close-support covering fire, which would be hard to work out in advance, but tend to decentralize their support weapons and artillery for the second phase of the assault, in which reinforced battalions, companies, or platoons fight their own way forwards, independently of their flanking units, until they have gained their final objective.

Attack on lightly defended positions is more similar to the conduct of the attack by the Panzer division. The first phase is likely to be a deployed attack on a two-regiment front, the third regiment in reserve.

The Germans believe that in the advance extended formation of units is advantageous because it forces the enemy to scatter his fire.

To counteract the overwhelming Allied superiority in artillery and planes which frequently knock out the attack before it is under way, the Germans have been known to use the following method. Small groups of less then platoon size infiltrate mainly at night over a period of three to four days into the hostile battle position or at least well behind the advanced positions. During the day the infiltrated groups conceal themselves, but if caught pass themselves off as ordinary patrols to avoid raising suspicion. When the actual attack is launched, these units try to give the impression that the defender is surrounded and often cause great confusion.

When the Germans go over from the attack to the defense, even if only temporarily, they concentrate the supporting weapons around the commander of the unit that is to be supported, so that he can control the fire plan.

(5) Infantry-assault gun coordination. The assault guns are organized in assault gun battalions and are under the control of the division commander.

The Germans regard their self-propelled assault guns as decisive weapons to be employed particularly at the point of main effort. In cooperation with infantry they facilitate the penetration and breakthrough. These weapons, the Germans believe, complement artillery fire by their ability to follow the infantry right up to an objective. Their use for small actions before an attack is forbidden so as not to betray their presence. Suprise is sought by bringing them into position by night and camouflaging their assembly area. Used primarily to neutralize enemy support weapons at short ranges over open sights, assault guns are preferably employed in concentrations; to employ them singly or in comparatively small number is frowned upon by the Germans.

German assault guns advance with or just behind the infantry; they never go ahead of the infantry. When an objective is reached, the assault guns do not remain with the infantry while the position is being consolidated but retire about 1,000 yards to await further assignment.

In close combat the assault guns are rather helpless and therefore it is the task of the infantry to keep the enemy away from the assault guns. Newly-organized assault-gun escort batteries have the same task.

(6) Artillery. The Germans employ their field artillery in general support (Allgemeine Unterstützung) or in direct support (Unmittelbare Unterstützung), in the same manner as the US Army. The Germans consider the battalion as the firing unit. Splitting up an artillery battalion into batteries and placing batteries under an infantry battalion is the exception justified only when the infantry battalion has an idependent mission (for example, flank protection) or when the terrain does not permit unified fire control by artillery battalion commanders. Single commitment of guns is against German tactical doctrine. Various recent reports, however, describe deviations from the prescribed practice. Normally the germans do not employ single field artillery pieces for direct fire, as, for instance, the Russians do. But much use is made of roving guns (Arbeitsgeschütze), and of guns firing from alternate positions to make identification more difficult. Standing German orders call for the preparation of alternate firing positions, which, however, are used now only in cases of very heavy counterbattery fire, as the gasoline shortge keeps all movements to a minimum. The Germans often designate the number two piece as the roving gun, and, unlike the other pieces, it normally is not dug in. It frequently changes its position, which is about 250 to 300 yards from the rest of the battery.

The German artillery often engages a target from a lateral position. This deception, particularly identified with longer range weapons, is extended by employing another gun, often of lighter caliber, in a carefully coordinated attack on the same target. Flash simulators also increase the difficulty of visual location of active guns.

The first step to obtain infantry-artillery coordination is taken in the attack order and is assured by direct contact between the commanders, artillery liaison units (Artillerieverbindungskommando), and direct contact between artillery observers and infantry units.

The Germans also employ forward observers (Vorgeschobene Beobachter), who have the same task as their US counterpart.

The signal equipment necessary for communication between units, liaison units, and observers is only partly organic. The Germans keep most of the signal equipment centralized in the division signal battalion, which allots equipment as needed to the various units.

In the attack the greater part of the artillery supports the main effort. The remainder of the artillery is assigned the mission of flank protection against possible enemy counterattacks.

5. Meeting Engagement (Begegnungsgefecht)

In the meeting engagement the Germans believe that the advantage lies with the side which succeeds first in making effective preparation for the attack and thereby deprives the enemy of hes freedom of action. When both adversaries attack immediately from march columns, the decisive factors are the initiative of the junior officers and the efficiency of the troops. The senior commander quickly coordinates the functions of the various officers, while the advance guard secures for him freedom of action and the opportunity for a speedy deployment of his troops.

6. Pursuit

US and German tactical doctrines on pursuit are very much alike. Pursuit begins when the enemy is no longer able to maintain his position and abandons the combat area with the bulk of his forces. the object of the pursuit is the complete annihilation of the retreating or routed enemy. Effective pursuit requires great initiative from commanders of all echelons of command, who must not hesitate to start pursuit immediately, even when their troops are exhausted. The enemy must be given no time to pause to reorganize his forces and reconstitute his defense.

The pursuit is conducted on a broad front by means of fire and movement. When making for distant objectives every effort is made to get around the enemy's flanks and effect a surprise attack in his rear. However, care must be taken that enemy attack on one's own flank does not cause deflection from the original direction.

Fast-moving troops are used in the pursuit. These troops often are organized into pursuit or advance sections. The infantry scatters the enemy and by-passes resisting enemy strongpoints, leaving their destruction to units following in the rear. Part of the artillery places concentrations at the avenues of retreat, while the remainder desplaces forward in echelon, providing continuous support for the units in front. The Germans emphasize that a pursuit without the necessary artillery support may lead to disaster. Assault guns travel well forward with the rapidly advancing infantry, their comparatively heavy armament enabling them to crush quickly and decisively any enemy forces attempting to make a stand. Combat aviation bombs routes of retreat and strafes the hostile forces in direct support of the ground attack. Combat enigneers repair damaged roads, facilitating the continuous flow of supply and troops.

Pursuit, after a successful breakthrough, is regarded by the Germans as an ideal mission for the Panzer division. Panzer Grenadiers in armored half-tracks or in unarmored vehicles and tanks supplement each other in pursuing the enemy. During the advance on roads, the tanks form the point. However, through wooded areas or larger villages the Panzer Grenadiers take over the point. Tanks and Panzer Grenadiers stay close together so that either, according to the situation, can be committed as soon as enemy resistance is encountered. Tanks are normally not used in units of less than company strength.

Fuente:manual de tácitcas del ejército alemán editado por el War Dpt americano por Stp. Ambrose

[V.Manstein]

Las tácticas deensivas alemanas frente a las rupturas soviéticas ( US Army german report series). Contraataque rontal y flanqueo. Que les aproveche:

One of the simplest methods of sealing off a break-through or eliminating a penetration is the frontal counterattack. Usually, such a counterattack can be launched only if the break-through is minor and can be localized, and if both shoulders are secure. Moreover, sufficient reserves must be available to close the breach by a quick counterthrust before the enemy is able to widen the gap. Once hostile preparations for a break-through have been clearly recognized, it is most effective to move the reserves close to the rear of the threatened sector. While the reserves must be close enough for instantaneous effective employment, they should be sufficiently removed from the front line so as not to forfeit prematurely their freedom of maneuver. In their assembly areas the reserves must be concealed from enemy observation and air attacks and must not be exposed to hostile preparation fire. Obviously, reserves should have maximum fire power and mobility; armored divisions come closest to these requirements because they combine tremendous striking force with concentrated fire power. Infantry supported by assault guns will often restore the situation so long as the break-through is local.

A counterattack is far more complicated if, before its effect is felt by the enemy, the shoulders begin to crumble, the breach is widened, and the enemy attack gains ground in depth. But even in this event, it is best to maintain the tactical integrity of the reserve so that upon commitment it can overrun the enemy infantry in one powerful thrust and regain the key positions of the former line. Only then should attempts be made to close the smaller gaps by flanking actions. As a countermeasure against the disintegration of the shoulders and as support to the flanking actions, it will prove effective to protect the open flanks of the break-through area with artillery and to assemble small local reserves behind them. Frequently one infantry company supported by assault guns will suffice for this purpose.

It would be a mistake to attempt to close an extensive breach across its entire width by overextending the attack frontage of the main reserve force. A. counterattack delivered under such circumstances would not have sufficient striking power and would be in danger of losing its punch and bogging down before it reached its objective. On the other hand, a delayed commitment of the reserves will result in an expansion of the breach; then, the counterattacking force will be faced with an entirely new situation with which it will be unable to cope alone. Such a delay often leads to heavy losses which can only be offset by committing additional forces.

Whenever the enemy achieves a major break-through that causes the collapse of a wide sector of the front (thirty miles or more), the local reserves will always be insufficient to close the gap by frontal counterattack. Piecemeal commitment of individual divisions in a gap of this width will simply lead to' their engulfment by the advancing hostile avalanche. Only a strong force consisting of several corps will be able to stem the tide and halt the enemy advance in the depth of the defense or to close the gap by a counterattack. There will usually be a considerable time lapse, however, before a force of such strength can be released from other sectors and moved to the break-through area. Meanwhile, attempts must be made to narrow the breach by withdrawing to a shorter line and by strengthening the resistance in the sectors adjacent to the gap.

The German offensive to recapture Kharkov and Belgorod presents a good example of a frontal counterattack. By 23 November 1942 the Russians had closed the ring around Stalingrad and started the most powerful winter offensive of the war. Advancing rapidly, they annihilated in quick succession the Romanian, Italian, and Hungarian units along the Chir and Don Rivers and opened a 350-mile gap in the German front. This breach was equal to the total length of the western front in World War I. Initially, only isolated German divisions, committed in support of the allied and, satellite forces, stood in the way of the Russians, like the stays of a corset. The bulk of the German reserves, including five fully equipped panzer divisions, were tied down in western Europe because of the invasion of North Africa by Allied forces. Some of these divisions later appeared on the eastern front. The German armies in the Caucasus, in danger of being cut off, were forced to withdraw. Their motorized units, {mainly First Panzer Army, were committed along the Donets in order to strengthen the southern wing of Army Group Don. North of the gap, the Second Army was forced to evacuate Voronezh and the Don front, and its southern wing was pushed far back to the west. Gradually, two-thirds of the entire Eastern Front. began to sway and crumble. Russian pressure mounted constantly and the only solution was to withdraw farther and farther to the west. The Russians poured in a never ending stream of hastily reorganized divisions and continued their drive. Three hostile armies converged on Kharkov and in mid-February 1943 succeeded in capturing this important traffic center by a
concentric attack. (Map 2) But their next thrust, aimed at Poltava, ground to a halt 30 miles short of the city because the Soviet troops were too exhausted to continue. Now they placed all their hopes in the Third Tank Army commanded by their most capable tank expert, General Popov. In mid-February Popov advanced practically with-out resistance in the direction northwest of Dnepropetrovsk with the apparent intention of reaching the Dnepr bend. His objective was to cross the Dnepr before the German forces were able to build up their defenses along the river, but it soon became obvious that his forces lacked the necessary drive. Meanwhile, the Germans were building up strength for a frontal counterattack.

The divisions arriving from the West detrained at Poltava behind a defensive screen established by Provisional Corps Raus. This corps held the line with three infantry divisions and the reconnaissance regiment of the 3d SS Panzer Division. Its other motorized elements, the Panzer Division Grossdeutschland and the Fuehrer Escort Battalion, were in rest areas west of Poltava, close to the front. They formed a mobile reserve to be committed in the event that the enemy attempted to capture Poltava by an enveloping thrust through the gap to the north. The Russians actually tried to outflank Poltava, but this danger was eliminated by German infantry supported by the reconnaissance regiment and tactical Luftwaffe units. During these actions the enemy showed definite signs of weakness and exhaustion, and the time for a major counterattack seemed to be approaching.

Quick action was indicated since the snow was beginning to thaw. Mud formed on the ground and soon all movements would become impossible. But deep down the soil was solidly frozen. Cold nights prevented a quick thaw and favored movements during the early morning hours. Meanwhile, the battle-weary German front-line troops were granted a short breathing spell and given the opportunity to integrate newly arrived replacements and equipment.

By 10 Mash 1943 the counterattack forces stood ready to jump off; their morale was excellent. The main effort was placed on the southern wing where terrain conditions favored the employment of armor. Here, the Grossdeutschland Division was assembled and given the mission of attacking toward Valki. Adjacent on the left, the 320th Infantry Division jumped off after a preparation from all guns of two divisions, supported by corps artillery. The infantry penetrated the enemy positions, mopped up a strong point on the main Poltava-Kharkov highway, and pushed the enemy beyond a flooded brook on the other side of the town. This normally insignificant watercourse had suddenly grown into a raging torrent which brought the attack to an unexpected halt after a gain of only one mile. The tanks of the Grossdeutschland Division attempted to overcome the swift current farther upstream and finally succeeded in crossing after several hours. More than eighty tanks broke through the second enemy position on the east bank of the brook and rolled toward Valid. Soon an improvised bridge was thrown across the brook and the attack regained its momentum. In the sector adjacent to the north, the 167th and 168th Infantry Divisions penetrated the enemy positions after heavy fighting, captured a number of villages, and attempted to establish contact with the LI Infantry Corps on the left. The reinforced reconnaissance regiment, committed between the 320th and the 167th Divisions, closed in on the enemy positions situated in the woods and penetrated deep into the forest. Its tanks advanced along the railroad tracks running parallel to the woods. By afternoon Corps Raus was making progress along its entire front and kept the crumbling enemy forces on the move.

On the second day of the thrust the corps committed all its forces in a concentric attack on Bogodukhov. For this purpose the corps zone was narrowed to 10 miles. Its width had already been reduced from 60 to 25 miles by the end of the first day. The enemy forces holding Bogodukhov were unable to resist the onslaught of the German ground troops which were closely supported by the Luftwaffe. The city fell after brief house-to-house fighting. Corps Raus then established contact with the spearheads of the I SS Panzer Corps which had just entered Olshany, fifteen miles southeast of Bogodukhov. After annihilating strong enemy forces in the Olshany area, the panzer corps turned to the east to envelop Kharkov and cut off the enemy's route of withdrawal to the north.

While the main force of Provisional Corps Raus was to advance northward in an attempt to establish contact with the LI Corps and thereby cut off the enemy forces in the Akhtyrka area, the 320th Division was to screen the pivoting movement of the I SS Panzer Corps. Ever increasing mud and floods slowed the advance at every step. Although all bridges across the swollen Vorskla, Udy, and Lopan Rivers had been destroyed, the infantry and panzer units were nevertheless able to reach their daily objectives. Many motor vehicles and horse-drawn artillery pieces, however, bogged down along the way. On the other hand, the considerably lighter artillery of the Russians and their Panje [Ed.: Russian peasant] wagons pulled through everywhere and escaped the German advance.

The Grossdeutschland Division carried the main effort and reached the upper Vorskla, with the 167th Division following closely. Since the LI Corps on the southern wing of Second Army lagged far behind, no contact with that corps could be established and the enemy around Akhtyrka escaped encirclement. The continuation of the operation by a thrust on Tomarovka required the panzer forces to pivot to the east, changing the direction of their advance. They were replaced by elements of the 167th Division which were to held a line facing north to provide flank cover. The advance toward Tomarovka was delayed because territorial gains toward the east automatically led to an extension of the open flank.

By the second day of this eastward thrust, the strong 167th Division was almost entirely immobilized along the flank. The arrival of LI Corps had to be awaited before the eastward thrust could be resumed. The main reason for this delay was that the boundary between Army Groups Center and South ran along the Vorskla River. The Army High Command, responsible for co-ordinating the operations of the two army groups, was too far removed, and its decisions therefore were too slow to keep abreast of the fast-moving events at the front. Finally, the Army High Command ordered LI Corps to relieve the 167th Division. The advance continued and the Grossdeutschland Division entered Tomarovka. On its approach to the town, the division destroyed a considerable number of Russian tanks while many undamaged ones, which had bogged down in the mud, were retrieved and turned against the enemy.

It was in this action that Tiger tanks engaged the Russian T34's for the first time; the results were more than gratifying for the Germans. For instance, two Tigers, acting as an armored point, destroyed a pack of T34's. Normally the Russian tanks would stand in ambush at the hitherto safe distance of 1,350 yards and wait for the German tanks to expose themselves upon their exit from a village. They would then take the German tanks under fire while the Panthers were still outranged. Until now, these tactics had been foolproof. This time, however, the Russians had miscalculated. Instead of leaving the village, the Tigers took up well-camouflaged positions and made full use of their longer range. Within a short time they knocked out sixteen T34's which were sitting in open terrain and, when the others turned about, the Tigers pursued the fleeing Russians and destroyed eighteen more tanks. It was observed that the 88-mm. armor-piercing shells had such a terrific impact that they ripped off the turrets of many T34's and hurled them several yards. The German soldiers' immediate reaction was to coin the phrase, "The T34 raises its hat whenever it meets a Tiger." The performance of the new German tanks was a great morale booster.

Farther to the south, Kharkov was captured by the 1st SS Panzer Division after four days of street fighting during which Tigers again played a decisive role. The 2d SS Panzer Division turned north, advanced on Belgorod, captured the city, and linked up with the Grossdeutschland Division which had thrust beyond Tomarovka. The capture of the two cities secured the anchors of the new German line along the Donets. Between these two points two German divisions slowly struggled through the mud in their effort to reach the west bank of the river.
The Russian elements that were able to cross the Donets were badly mauled. German reconnaissance units, advancing beyond the river, met with little resistance. Even though the German attack divisions were fully capable of continuing their drive, the over-all situation and the prevailing mud made it inadvisable.

The objective of the frontal counterattack had been achieved. The breach, open for four months, was closed and the greatest Russian winter offensive was stopped. After suffering a defeat of gigantic pro-portions, the Germans once again held a continuous line anchored on the Donets River.

The defender will often find it expedient to attack the flank of an enemy penetration with the objective of cutting off and destroying the hostile forces that have broken through. Such tactics are effective only when a secure shoulder provides the defender with a spring-board for an attack which is launched straight across the gap to the other shoulder, or when a natural obstacle, such as a large body of water or a swamp, serves as an anvil against which he can crush the attacker. An effective flank attack requires a balanced force with adequate striking power whose strength need not necessarily exceed one-third of the total enemy forces committed in the break-through. The more powerful and mobile the force, the quicker the defender will attain his objective. Unsupported infantry is incapable of mounting a successful flank attack against an armored penetration. In such a situation infantry must always be supported by strong assault gun and armored units as well as sizable antitank forces.

The defender who attacks the flank of an enemy penetration runs the risk of exposing his own flank and must therefore take this factor into account when he plans the counterattack. The danger is usually less serious than anticipated because, during the initial stages of the break-through, the attacker usually commits his forces almost exclusively along the axis of advance without giving much attention to his flanks. These rush tactics are practical, however, only so long as the defender has neither the means nor the opportunity for immediate, effective counteraction. During their invasion of Russia in 1941, for instance, the Germans did not present the Russians with any such opening. On the other hand, during the Russian counteroffenses in 1942, the German command always had strong armored forces at its disposal, making it inadvisable for the enemy to be careless in exposing his flanks. Bitter experience was to teach the Russian that flanks must be protected until he finally made them so tank-proof that they could only be overpowered with heavy casualties. For this reason the German flank attacks gradually lost their sting after 1943 and were more often repulsed.

Flank attacks are particularly effective when employed to eliminate hostile river crossings. The forces which cross first can usually be shattered or wiped out without too much difficulty because they rarely have adequate defensive protection. This happened, for instance, along the Teterev in December 1943. (Chapter 3) The defender will find it much more difficult, well-nigh impossible, to eliminate a strongly fortified enemy bridgehead which has adequate fire support from the far bank of the river.

At the beginning of April 1944, the Germans launched a flank attack which proved very effective in remedying a precarious situation. After heavy winter fighting in eastern Galicia and Podolia, the Fourth Panzer Army, with three corps, was on a line extending from Kovel in the north, through Brody, to Berezhany in the south. (Map 3). The Russian encirclement of Brody was imminent. There was a gap between that town and the army's left wing, and the army right flank was exposed. The so-called fortress Ternopol, 18 miles to the front of the south wing, had been encircled for ten days. The First Panzer Army, forming a roving pocket, was moving north of the Dnestr River toward the gap on Fourth Panzer Army's southern flank. Strong Russian forces were driving westward past the pocket on both sides of the river.

Although the over-all situation was far from satisfactory, the Fourth Panzer Army had at least stopped its retrograde movement. The army was intact after many critical battles and had inflicted heavy losses upon the enemy during the winter. Despite evident battle weariness, the Russians continued their attempts to take Brody in order to gain a route to Lvov. They did succeed in encircling the city on several occasions. The encirclements were broken each time by the provisional armored Task Force Friebe, made up of one battalion of Tigers and one of Panthers. This task force, augmented by a rocket projector brigade equipped with 900 late-type launchers, destroyed the enemy while he was still in his assembly area preparing for the final all-out attack The Russians abandoned the siege of Brody and, in a most unusual change of tactics, used their newly arrived forces to form a continuous front line opposite the army center. The XIII Infantry Corps followed suit and linked up with the XLII Infantry Corps to the north, thus closing the gap north of Brody. The armored task force was now available for other missions.

The army's exposed right flank was under light attack. The Russians captured a few villages, but they were promptly retaken by local reserves supported by an armored battalion which moved freely along the flank. The army front was intact and the southern flank, though exposed, was secure.

Still, the Russian forces which had bypassed the roving pocket continued their westward drive. Their armored spearheads south of the Dnestr entered Stanislav, and those to the north of the river approached the fortified area around the Galich bridgehead. Quickly gathered German infantry, together with advance elements of theHungarian First Army, which was assembling in the Stanislav–Nadvornaya area, drove the enemy out of Stanislav after street fighting. North of the river, however, the enemy, hampered only by muddy terrain, reached the Zlota Lipa valley. His axis of advance pointed toward the Drohobycz oil fields.

The forward elements of the forces in the pocket had by now reached the Chortkuv area. The Fourth Panzer Army was given the mission of relieving the First Panzer Army by a flank attack, and it received strong reinforcements for the execution of this task. The flank attack was to be launched to the southeast from Berezhany, while a secondary thrust to the Dnestr was to pinch off and destroy the Russian infantry divisions which had penetrated as far as the Galich area.

As a preliminary step, the first elements of the 100th Light Infantry Division, detraining in the army rear area, were ordered to capture the terrain south of Berezhany. Elements of another infantry division were to take the area south of Rogatin. Both of these operations were designed to secure the unloading of II SS Panzer Corps, which had been transferred from Italy. Within a few days after detraining the corps was ready to jump off. Aware of the threat to their flank, the Russians used all their available air power to harass the assembly of the German forces which were restricted to the only two usable roads in the area. This enemy interference, how-ever, was negligible compared to the difficulties presented by the muddy terrain.

The 100th Light Infantry Division was to clear the way for the decisive thrust, with the panzer corps following close behind. The only available all-weather road permitting major mechanized movements, led via Podgaytse to Buchach. The infantry had the mission of capturing heavily defended Podgaytse to open the road for the panzer thrust. Hardly had the enemy screening force been dislodged from the wooded heights south of Berezhany, when the infantry ran into huge snowdrifts which covered the entire road to a depth of several feet along 200- to 500-yard stretches. It was impossible to bypass these obstacles because of the rugged, snow-covered terrain on both sides of the road. Security guards were posted and the combat troops, equipped only with intrenching tools and a few locally procured shovels, began to clear the snow. After several hours of steady work, a single lane was opened and around noon it was possible to move up the artillery and tanks which were essential for the impending operation against Podgaytse.

Despite the delay, the infantry took the strongly organized high ground in front of Podgaytse the same day. The division's Tiger battalion knocked out the T34's and antitank gun positions which de-fended the entrance to the town, but in so doing completely blocked its own advance. The main entrance alone was clogged by sixteen disabled Russian tanks and, as the infantry edged forward in house-to-house fighting, the wrecks were towed off, pushed aside, or blown up. By late evening the Tigers had thrust across the town, knocking out thirty-six additional tanks in their advance. The infantry mopped up during the night and on the next morning turned eastward to-ward the Strypa River to secure the left flank of the panzer corps and to make way for its advance.

The 10th SS Panzer Division now took the lead, with 100 tanks spearheading the movement. At the southern edge of Podgaytse, the division ran into strong resistance from skillfully concealed antitank guns which were too well entrenched to be attacked frontally and could not be bypassed because of the deep water ditches, ravines, and swamps on both sides of the road. After close reconnaissance, the guns were finally knocked out one by one with concentrated panzer and artillery fire. The way cleared, the tanks rolled forward. To avoid further delay, the division commander decided to drive cross-country to Buchach, but the route taken for a short cut proved to be a quagmire. Only the division commander with five lead tanks got through. Although he was able to establish contact with the spearheads of the First Panzer Army, this achievement served no practical purpose as long as the highway from Podgaytse to Buchach was still in enemy hands. The hasty decision to leave this highway delayed the operation and cut off the division commander from his troops. Their tanks bogged down, the panzer troops, fighting as infantry under the corps commander, undertook the clearance of the highway. Hostile antitank fire interfered with their advance, and the Soviets offered strong resistance in the villages along the road. But, subjected to increasing pressure both from the panzer corps and the infantry division approaching from the Galich area, their efforts were in vain. That evening, near the bend of the road west of Buchach, the Russian infantry divisions fleeing eastward along the Dnestr were blocked off, hurled against the river, and destroyed with the help of newly arrived infantry forces. The attack units regrouped and then turned eastward. On 5 April Buchach was reached, and the axis of withdrawal of the encircled army was cleared. The Russians did not readily yield the prize which was being wrung from their grasp. In fierce pursuit they tried to cross the swollen Strypa to cut the escape artery, but they were no match for the liberating forces. Whenever they got across the river, they were immediately thrown back.

By mid-April the right wing of the Fourth Panzer Army had deployed behind the Strypa, and the front, anchored on the Dnestr to the south, included a bridgehead across the Strypa opposite Buchach. On this line fixed positions were organized. The objective of the flank attack —stabilization of the front in eastern Galicia -- was attained with the liberation of the First Panzer Army from encirclement and its reintegration into the German defense system.

In another instance, hostile armored forces opened a 20-mile gap through which the Russians poured reinforcements. The German command wanted to close the breach by a flank attack but had only one panzer division for this purpose. The division was much too weak for this mission, all the more since the enemy had committed strong forces to widen the gap and was protecting his southern flank with powerful armored and antitank units. The operation was therefore divided into several phases. As an initial step the crumbling shoulder south of the gap was strengthened, and then a preliminary panzer attack narrowed the breach to ten miles. Immediately after its replacement by infantry units, the panzer division was ready for the main phase of the operation the closing of the gap. In a surprise night attack against the enemy flank, the mechanized infantry overcame the tank and antitank cover, and the German tanks, immediately following, succeeded in closing the gap. Furious enemy attacks against the newly established defense line were repelled, but now the northern anchor, held by a recently activated division, gave way in the face of heavily mounting pressure. Finally, this danger was eliminated by the timely arrival of reinforcements. This example clearly demonstrates the effectiveness of a well-executed flank attack even though it may have to be carried out with comparatively weak tank forces. The importance of securing the shoulders at the base of a break-through is only too obvious.

The flank attack is very frequently used in local counterattacks and is an integral part of many large-scale defensive operations. A break-through on a very wide frontage by overwhelmingly superior armor cannot be eliminated by a flank attack even though strong tank forces may be available to the defender, because the attacker usually protects his interior flanks with adequate armor and antitank gun fronts. But even if the flank attack should surmount this obstacle, the attacker still has sufficient time to shift strong tank units from his main effort to the threatened interior flank in order to eliminate the danger. Under the most favorable circumstances, the defender's armored units may be able to divert the attacker's main force by compelling him to establish a new defense line on his flank. This happened west of Kiev in November 1943 when the Germans first succeeded in thwarting the enemy's attack plan, but later saw their own plans frustrated. The result was an extension of their own front line which tied down the German reserves committed in the flank attack. Moreover, by leaving their own flank open, the Germans encouraged the Russians to press their attacks in that direction.

Frequently, the threat of a flank attack by armored forces will alarm the attacker so much he will halt his offensive in order to avoid the annihilation of those of his forces which have broken through. He will be especially apprehensive if, only shortly before, he has suffered a severe blow by a flank attack or some other armored thrust. During the German relief thrust toward Stalingrad, for instance, panzer forces turned against the flank of the advancing Russian infantry, who fled panic-stricken. This was not surprising since earlier that month a Russian cavalry corps had been annihilated by a flank attack of a strong panzer division at Pokhlebin on the Aksay River and two Russian infantry divisions had been routed north of the river by similar methods.

[V.Manstein]

Ataque sopresa sobre preparaciones atacantes del enemigo:

The spoiling attack—a surprise thrust into the enemy attack preparations—is a very effective, though rare, operation. Its purpose is to disorganize the enemy's assembly and thereby delay and weaken his offensive or to force him to launch his attack at a less vulnerable point.

Such an attack from the defensive can be undertaken only under certain conditions. The enemy assembly area must be easily accessible to a surprise thrust, and the defender must have strong armored reserves on hand. The terrain and road net must facilitate quick maneuver under cover of darkness. All attack plans must be concealed from the enemy, or he must be deceived with regard to the real intentions. For this reason, it is imperative that one act without delay.

These prerequisites existed only on rare occasions. However, the Germans were presented with a perfect opportunity to exploit them at the beginning of November 1943. (Map 4) The Russians had broken through north of Kiev, and there were indications that they intended to envelop the northern wing of Army Group South. The forces at the disposal of the First Ukrainian Front were insufficient to attain this objective. The Soviets advanced sixty miles to the west, captured the important railroad junction of Fastov, neutralized Zhitomir, and encircled the LIX Infantry Corps in Korosten. But a German flank attack by armored units forced the Russians to pull back across the Teterev. Although Zhitomir was relieved, Fastov remained in enemy hands, and the siege of Korosten continued. The Fourth Panzer Army front, which had faced east before the Russian offensive, gave way and was now facing north. Both the German and the Russian flanks were open to the west. Because of their inability to close this gap, the Germans extended an open invitation to the Russians, to continue their offensive in order to exploit the success they had hitherto achieved. They had a unique opportunity to execute a wide envelopment out of their assembly area north of Zhitomir. Troop concentrations and road repairs performed behind the hostile lines indicated the imminent resumption of the Soviet offensive which would first threaten the Fourth Panzer Army and subsequently the entire army group.

The situation called for immediate action, and the Germans therefore decided to` avert the threat by striking the flank of the hostile attack preparations with strong panzer forces. The XLVIII Panzer Corps, with the 1st SS, 7th, and 1st Panzer Divisions, was withdrawn from the front and assembled behind the center of the army sector. Meanwhile the approach routes -- some of which led through marshy wooded terrain — were reconnoitered, bridges repaired, and the partisan units rampant in the forests dispersed by the security division responsible for this area. Immediately afterward, the combat elements of all three panzer divisions moved out in broad daylight and marched along the main highway through Zhitomir in order to deceive the enemy into believing that strong forces were being shifted to another sector of the front. It was later established that this deception was completely successful. In any event, these preliminary steps were actually inevitable since the movements connected with them had to be executed to enable the Germans to strike deep into the open enemy flank. Without this attempt at deception, the movements would have required two nights, since the approach and assembly of such a strong panzer corps could not be effected in one night. By carrying out the movements by day, they could be timed so that the units reached their turn-off points along the main highway shortly after dusk. By that time half the itinerary had been covered and the movements continued without interruption. The enemy had no opportunity to observe the turning movements of the corps, first to the north, then toward the east.

The entire movement proceeded according to plan without enemy interference. On 4 December 1943, at 0600, all three panzer divisions were poised for attack along the Zhitomir-Korosten high-way. At the same time all the GHQ artillery, a rocket-projector brigade with launchers of different calibers up to 320-mm., and an armored train, were moved into position behind the left wing of XIII Infantry Corps on the extreme end of the open flank. These preparations, as well as the concentration of strong reserves behind XIII Corps wing, were to lead the Russians into assuming that the German attack would continue on the army left wing, exactly where it had bogged down the previous month. The Russians were easily convinced of these intentions because their own reaction in similar situations was identical. When a heavy concentration was delivered in this sector at dawn and a German infantry division launched a frontal at-tack immediately afterward, the enemy felt absolutely certain that his estimates were correct. He shifted strong reserves to this sector and counterattacked, only to he stopped in his tracks by the concentrated fire of 300 rocket launchers. The Russians were still completely unaware of the impending flank attack. Only after they had moved all available forces and weapons close to the front line, did two German corps comprising live divisions simultaneously attack their right flank. The main thrust was executed by the three divisions of XLVIII Panzer Corps which advanced east toward the Teterev River. Some 1st SS Panzer Division elements were to turn south and attack the Russian forces from the rear. The 7th Panzer Division was to cover the corps left flank and establish contact with LIX Corps, which was breaking out of encircled Korosten.

Completely surprised by this flank attack, the enemy offered little resistance during the first day. The mine fields emplaced by the Russians to protect their open flank were easily discovered from the air and bypassed. The entire flank was crushed and destroyed by the attack from the rear. Within a few hours the German tanks penetrated deep into the enemy artillery emplacements, overran batteries under cover of light ground fog, and destroyed the guns. Since the ground was frozen and covered by only a thin layer of snow, the tanks were able to move quickly and according to schedule. By the end of the first day, the panzer divisions had advanced fifteen to twenty miles into the enemy's flank, taken numerous prisoners, and captured all of his artillery. The LIX Corps had achieved its break-out and established contact with the panzer corps. The Zhitomir-Korosten highway and railroad line were once again in German hands. The completeness of the surprise achieved guaranteed the success of the operation. Only weak remnants of the enemy forces escaped to the east.

The thrust was continued during the second day. But its momentum was greatly impaired by heavy fog and a breakdown of the 1st SS Panzer Division supply system. Even though this division dropped out because of ammunition and fuel shortages, the other divisions advanced twelve more miles. The enemy resistance remained negligible. As the attack progressed, the elements of the XIII Corps gradually joined the panzer corps thrust along the sectors in which the flank attack had swept away all enemy opposition. Farther north, however, the LIX Corps was heavily engaged and progressed only step by step.

It was not until the third day that the first enemy countermeasures were felt, but the few Russian armored and infantry units thrown across the lower Teterev were incapable of withstanding the powerful drive of the panzer corps. The Russians' newly established defenses were quickly overrun and several Soviet tanks destroyed during this action. Armed points of the 1st Panzer Division reached the Teterev south of the railroad bridge. The 69th Infantry Division, operating on the right wing of XIII Corps, crossed the Teterev at Radomyshl And joined the panzer corps advance- On the other hand, the sizable Russian forces remaining in the swampy forests along the Irsha held out so tenaciously that the LIX Corps with its two infantry divisions was unable to overcome their resistance. West of the Teterev, the enemy troops were reduced to a few bridgeheads. During the night,however, these were reinforced to a point where they nearly burst with personnel and equipment. A new enemy army attempted to reverse the tide at any cost.

During the fourth day, heavy enemy attacks struck at the XIII Corps and XLVIII Panzer Corps sectors. Most of them were checked and territorial gains were made by means of armored counterattacks. By the end of the day, however, the center of XIII Corps was in danger of being overrun.

The Germans now decided to eliminate the enemy bridgeheads. On the fifth day of the drive the 1st Panzer Division and the 1st SS Panzer Division formed the jaws of a pincers movement intended to annihilate all enemy forces remaining on the west bank of the Teterev. The weak 7th Panzer Division was to protect the north flank. Desperate enemy attempts to withstand the onslaught of 200 tanks were in vain. One bridgehead after another was crushed or reduced by the powerful drive of the panzer divisions. By noon armored points established contact within the perimeter of the fifth and last enemy bridgehead. The bridges were blown up and the bulk of the enemy equipment, together with many prisoners, fell into German hands. The day culminated in an all-out attack by all available panzer forces and strong elements of XIII Corps against those enemy units which had dented the German lines during the preceding day. It ended in their encirclement and annihilation.

Thus, the first objective of the operation was achieved. The surprise thrust from the defensive penetrated an area forty-five miles in depth and completely destroyed one Russian army and a second one suffered such heavy casualties that it was at least temporarily rendered ineffective. Enemy casualties numbered thousands dead, wounded, or prisoners; more than 200 enemy tanks were destroyed and approximately 800 artillery pieces captured. German losses were light. The front line was shortened and now faced east; it was held solely by German infantry divisions. The XLVIII Panzer Corps was available for another mission.

The second phase of the thrust had the objective of consolidating the German lines. In order to clear the swampy forests along the Irsha of hostile forces and establish direct contact between LIX and XIII Corps, the XLVIII Panzer Corps moved to the Korosten area and launched a pincers attack against the enemy forces in the swamps: Two panzer divisions and Korpsabteilung "E" [Ed. : a provisional unit of divisional strength formed by three weakened infantry divisions, each organized into one regiment] attacked from Korosten north of the Irsha, toward the southeast, and the 7th Panzer and 112th Infantry Division thrust from positions south of the river toward the northeast. The northern spearhead, advancing in open terrain along the railroad to Kiev, initially made good progress whereas the southern thrust was slowed down by heavy fighting in the wooded terrain. Nevertheless, the two armored spearheads established contact by the second day. The marshy forests along the Irsha were still being combed when strong Russian tank formations suddenly launched a flank attack from the north. Soviet armor and infantry also moved up from Kiev. According to statements made by prisoners of war, the Russians anticipated a German offensive to capture Kiev and therefore committed all units available in the area. In view of their limited strength, the Germans had not planned such a large-scale operation, quite apart from the difficulties they would have had in getting through the marshy forests extending between the Teterev and the Dnepr. Actually, the objective of the surprise thrust had been fully achieved, and the intended creation of a continuous infantry front was well under way. In spite of the reckless expenditure of newly arrived armored and infantry forces, the Russian counterattack did not gain any ground. All enemy attacks were repelled after stubborn fighting. On the very first day of the clash, the enemy lost more than eighty tanks. During the following two days, 150 additional tanks were destroyed by the Germans, and the Russian counterattack bogged down eventually. Minor thrusts supported by tanks were directed against the XIII Corps sector but were equally futile.

The consolidating phase of the thrust accentuated the effects of the initial surprise attack. Two additional Russian armies were so badly mauled that they were incapable of offensive action. The acute threat in the area north of Zhitomir was thereby eliminated. A few weeks later the Russian Christmas offensive was launched at a less vulnerable sector of the front, an obvious indication that the enemy had been forced to change his plans.

The spoiling attack therefore achieved the dual purpose of relieving an encircled corps and enabling the Germans to build up a continuous front where previously there had been a wide gap. The annihilation of strong enemy forces was an incidental, though important result of this operation. A frontal counterattack would not have been successful in this case, quite aside from the heavy casualties it would have involved.

Frontal thrusts into enemy attack preparations can be employed only in minor operations. Their success depends on achieving complete surprise as, for instance, during night raids. A singularly well-executed frontal surprise thrust was launched at the beginning of March 1945, when a detachment of young German naval cadets carried out a raid from a bridgehead north of Stettin. Well equipped with Panzerfausts [Ed.: recoilless antitank grenade launchers], they struck at the center of the assembly area of a Russian tank brigade and destroyed all its thirty-six tanks.

Extracto del mismo documento del anterior. No tengo los mapas.

[MENCEY]

Esos textos tan largos en Ingles.............

[V.Manstein]

Esos textos tan largos en Ingles.............

Esas quejas tan commovedoras por la lengua de Shakespeare :cry: .........creo que nos conocemos, vecino 8) .